The effects of task difficulty on gaze behaviour during landing with visual flight rules in low-time pilots.

Eye movements have been used to examine the cognitive function of pilots and understand how information processing abilities impact performance. Traditional and advanced measures of gaze behaviour effectively reflect changes in cognitive load, situational awareness, and expert-novice differences. However, the extent to which gaze behaviour changes during the early stages of skill development has yet to be addressed. The current study investigated the impact of task difficulty on gaze behaviour in low-time pilots (N=18) while they completed simulated landing scenarios. An increase in task difficulty resulted in longer fixation of the runway, and a reduction in the stationary gaze entropy (gaze dispersion) and gaze transition entropy (sequence complexity). These findings suggest that pilots' gaze became less complex and more focused on fewer areas of interest when task difficulty increased. Additionally, a novel approach to identify and track instances when pilots restrict their attention outside the cockpit (i.e., gaze tunneling) was explored and shown to be sensitive to changes in task difficulty. Altogether, the gaze-related metrics used in the present study provide valuable information for assessing pilots gaze behaviour and help further understand how gaze contributes to better performance in low-time pilots.

Gaze behaviour: A window into distinct cognitive processes revealed by the Tower of London test.

The analysis of gaze behaviour during complex tasks provides a promising non-invasive method to examine how specific eye movement patterns relate to various aspects of cognition and action. Notably, the association between aspects of gaze behaviour and subsequent goal-directed action during high-level visuospatial problem solving remains elusive. Therefore, the current study comprehensively examined gaze behaviour using traditional and entropy-based gaze analyses in healthy adults (N = 27) while they performed the Freiburg version of the Tower of London task. Results demonstrated that both gaze analyses provided crucial temporal and spatial information related to planning, solution elaboration and execution. Specifically, gaze biases toward task-relevant areas (i.e., the work space) and an increase in gaze complexity (i.e., gaze transition entropy) during optimal performance reflected changes in cognitive demands as task difficulty increased. A comparison between optimal and non-optimal performance revealed sub-optimal gaze patterns that occurred in the early stages of planning, which were taken to reflect poor information extraction from the task environment and impaired maintenance of information in visuospatial working memory. Gaze behaviour during movement execution indicated an increased need to extract and process information from the goal space. Consequently, movement execution time increased in order to reverse erroneous movements and re-sequence the problem solution. Taken together, the traditional and entropy-based gaze analyses applied in the present study provide a promising approach to identify eye movement patterns that support neurocognitive performance on tasks relying on visuospatial planning and problem solving.

Distinct visual resolution supports aperture shaping in natural and pantomime-grasping.

Pantomime-grasping is a "simulated" motor response wherein an individual grasps to an area dissociated from a physical target. The task has been used in the apraxia literature as a proxy for natural grasping (i.e., physically grasping a target); however, it is important to recognize that the task's decoupled spatial relations between stimulus and response renders the top-down processing of target features (e.g., size) that accumulating evidence has shown to be mediated by visual information functionally distinct from natural grasping. Here, we examined whether the visual information supporting pantomime-grasps exhibits a visual resolution power commensurate with natural grasps. Participants were presented with a target and nontarget that differed in size below the perceptual threshold (i.e., 0.5 mm or ∼1.3%) and were asked to make a perceptual judgment about the target (i.e., "smaller" or "larger" than the nontarget) before and after completing natural and pantomime-grasps. Results showed that perceptual judgments "before" and "after" natural and pantomime-grasps did not reliably distinguish between target and nontarget. Natural grasp peak grip apertures (PGAs) scaled to target size and were comparable for "before" and "after" perceptual judgment trials-a result indicating that haptic feedback from physically grasping the target did not "boost" perceptual accuracy. Most notably, pantomime-grasp PGAs were insensitive to target size; that is, responses elicited a visual resolution power less than natural grasps. These results provide convergent evidence that pantomime-grasps are mediated by the same visual information as obligatory perceptions and do not provide a proxy for natural grasps. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Pupillometry Reveals the Role of Arousal in a Postexercise Benefit to Executive Function.

A single bout of aerobic exercise improves executive function; however, the mechanism(s) underlying this improvement remains unclear. Here, we employed a 20-min bout of aerobic exercise, and at pre- and immediate post-exercise sessions examined executive function via pro- (i.e., saccade to veridical target location) and anti-saccade (i.e., saccade mirror symmetrical to a target) performance and pupillometry metrics. Notably, tonic and phasic pupillometry responses in oculomotor control provided a framework to determine the degree that arousal and/or executive resource recruitment influence behavior. Results demonstrated a pre- to post-exercise decrease in pro- and anti-saccade reaction times (p = 0.01) concurrent with a decrease and increase in tonic baseline pupil size and task-evoked pupil dilations, respectively (ps < 0.03). Such results demonstrate that an exercise-induced improvement in saccade performance is related to an executive-mediated "shift" in physiological and/or psychological arousal, supported by the locus coeruleus norepinephrine system to optimize task engagement.

Effects of blocked vs. interleaved administration mode on saccade preparatory set revealed using pupillometry.

Eye movements have been used extensively to assess information processing and cognitive function. However, significant variability in saccade performance has been observed, which could arise from methodological variations across different studies. For example, prosaccades and antisaccades have been studied using either a blocked or interleaved design, which has a significant influence on error rates and latency. This is problematic as it makes it difficult to compare saccade performance across studies and may limit the ability to use saccades as a behavioural assay to assess neurocognitive function. Thus, the current study examined how administration mode influences saccade related preparatory activity by employing pupil size as a non-invasive proxy for neural activity related to saccade planning and execution. Saccade performance and pupil dynamics were examined in eleven participants as they completed pro- and antisaccades in blocked and interleaved paradigms. Results showed that administration mode significantly modulated saccade performance and preparatory activity. Reaction times were longer for both pro- and antisaccades in the interleaved condition, compared to the blocked condition (p < 0.05). Prosaccade pupil dilations were larger in the interleaved condition (p < 0.05), while antisaccade pupil dilations did not significantly differ between administration modes. Additionally, ROC analysis provided preliminary evidence that pupil size can effectively predict saccade directional errors prior to saccade onset. We propose that task-evoked pupil dilations reflect an increase in preparatory activity for prosaccades and the corresponding cognitive demands associated with interleaved administration mode. Overall, the results highlight the importance that administration mode plays in the design of neurocognitive tasks.

Executive Dysfunction after a Sport-Related Concussion Is Independent of Task-Based Symptom Burden.

A sport-related concussion (SRC) results in short- and long-term deficits in oculomotor control; however, it is unclear whether this change reflects executive dysfunction and/or a performance decrement caused by an increase in task-based symptom burden. Here, individuals with a SRC - and age- and sex-matched controls - completed an antisaccade task (i.e., saccade mirror-symmetrical to a target) during the early (initial assessment ≤12 days) and later (follow-up assessment <30 days) stages of recovery. Antisaccades were used because they require top-down executive control and exhibit performance decrements following an SRC. Reaction time (RT) and directional errors were included with pupillometry, because pupil size in the antisaccade task has been shown to provide a neural proxy for executive control. In addition, the Sport-Concussion Assessment Tool (SCAT-5) symptom checklist was completed prior to and after each oculomotor assessment to identify a possible task-based increase in symptomology. The SRC group yielded longer initial assessment RTs, more directional errors, and larger task-evoked pupil dilations (TEPD) than the control group. At the follow-up assessment, RTs for the SRC and control group did not reliably differ; however, the former demonstrated more directional errors and larger TEPDs. SCAT-5 symptom severity scores did not vary from the pre- to post-oculomotor evaluation for either initial or follow-up assessments. Accordingly, an SRC imparts a persistent executive dysfunction to oculomotor planning independent of a task-based increase in symptom burden. These findings evince that antisaccades serve as an effective tool to identify subtle executive deficits during the early and later stages of SRC recovery.

Hand anthropometry and the limits of aperture separation determine the utility of Weber's law in grasping and manual estimation.

Recent work proposed that biomechanical constraints in aperture separation limit the utility of Weber's law in determining whether dissociable visual codes support grasping and manual estimation. We tested this assertion by having participants precision grasp, manually estimate and complete a method of adjustment task to targets scaled within and beyond the range of their maximal aperture separation (i.e., from 20 to 140% of participant-specific maximal aperture separation: MAS). For grasping and manual estimation tasks, just-noticeable-difference (JND) scores were computed via the within-participant standard deviations in peak grip aperture, whereas method of adjustment JNDs were computed via the within-participant standard deviations in response output. Method of adjustment JNDs increased linearly across the range of targets; that is, responses adhered to Weber's law. Manual estimation JNDs linearly increased for targets 20-100% of MAS and then decreased for targets 120-140% of MAS. In turn, grasping JNDs for targets 20% through 80% of MAS did not differ and were larger than targets 100-140% of MAS. That manual estimation and grasping showed a decrease in JNDs for the largest targets indicates that participants were at their biomechanical limits in aperture shaping, and the fact that the target showing the JND decrease differed between tasks (i.e., manual estimation = 100% of MAS; grasping = 80% of MAS) is attributed to the fact that grasping-but not manual estimation-requires a safety-margin task-set. Accordingly, manual estimations and grasping across a range of functionally 'graspable' targets, respectively, adhered to and violated Weber's law-a result interpreted to reflect the use of dissociable visual codes.